The UNU-INWEH report warns that rapid global demand for minerals essential to clean energy and digital technology is creating serious local problems in some of the world’s poorest regions. It calls lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite and rare earth elements the "oil of the 21st Century" because they are needed for electric vehicles, batteries, solar panels, wind turbines, data centres and artificial intelligence. UNU-INWEH director Kaveh Madani said the world is repeating fossil fuel era mistakes by treating water depletion and pollution as "acceptable trade-offs".
The report shows that environmental damage, water loss and health harms fall mainly on poorer mining regions in Africa and South America, while richer countries gain most economic benefits. Africa holds about 30 per cent of global critical mineral reserves. The Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar and Morocco together hold more than half of global cobalt deposits, and the DRC provides more than 60 per cent of global cobalt production. In the DRC, more than 80 per cent of mineral output comes from foreign-controlled industrial mines, while almost three quarters of people live on less than US$2.15 a day and about two thirds lack basic drinking water access.
The report includes striking data on resources and waste. Producing one tonne of lithium requires about 1.9 million litres of water. In 2024, global lithium production excluding the United States reached about 240,000 tonnes, using around 456 billion litres of water—enough for the annual domestic needs of about 62 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa. Producing one tonne of rare earth minerals can generate about 2,000 tonnes of toxic waste; 2024 rare earth production generated an estimated 707 million metric tonnes of toxic waste.
Rather than abandoning green technologies, the authors urge reforms: restructure supply chains, invest in recycling and research on material substitution, enforce environmental standards and protect water. They also call for mandatory due diligence, trade rules that protect human rights and water, and support for environmental and health recovery in affected regions.
Difficult words
- depletion — gradual reduction in the amount of something
- reserve — supply of a natural resource kept for future usereserves
- deposit — a natural layer where a mineral is founddeposits
- toxic waste — harmful materials produced by industrial processes
- restructure — change the organisation or structure of something
- recycling — process of reusing materials instead of discarding them
- due diligence — careful checks to find legal and ethical risks
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Discussion questions
- How could investing in recycling and research on material substitution reduce harms in mining regions? Give reasons or examples.
- What difficulties do poorer mining regions face when most mineral output comes from foreign-controlled industrial mines?
- Which trade rules or due diligence measures do you think would best protect water and human rights in affected communities, and why?
