A recent study finds that lower fertility in the United States contributed to progress toward equal pay between men and women. Researchers estimate that roughly eight percent of the narrowing gender pay gap resulted from women having fewer children. The analysis draws on a large national dataset of American workers' family sizes and earnings over time; it was published in Social Forces and received partial support from the National Institutes of Health.
The research traces how family size and pay changed together. Average children per working adult fell from about 2.4 in the mid-1980s to about 1.8 by 2000, the most recent year in the analysis. At the same time, women's hourly pay rose from around 65% of men's pay to about 85%.
Part of the effect comes from how parenthood alters career paths. The study finds that becoming a mother often produces wage losses because many mothers leave the labour force temporarily or shift to part-time work, while becoming a father is associated with higher earnings. Delaying or foregoing children allowed some women to maintain continuous, higher-skill employment, a structural change the authors say has important economic implications for future generations.
The researchers and authors offer policy suggestions. Alexandra (Sasha) Killewald warns that "increasing birth rates will tend to widen the pay gap, unless we find ways to reduce the motherhood wage penalty." She adds that public investments in high-quality, affordable child care could allow more mothers to work for pay or to work more hours if they wish. Killewald also urges policies that help fathers share caregiving and that reduce very long work hours, for example by limiting mandatory overtime or shortening the standard work week. Policymakers, she notes, must balance goals: supporting people's choices about children while giving men and women equal opportunities to work and parent.
Difficult words
- fertility — average number of children born per woman
- gender pay gap — difference in average pay between men and women
- labour force — people who are working or seeking work
- part-time — working fewer hours than full-time employees
- motherhood wage penalty — earnings loss experienced by women after having children
- caregiving — providing care for children or other family members
Tip: hover, focus or tap highlighted words in the article to see quick definitions while you read or listen.
Discussion questions
- How might delayed or fewer children change women's long-term careers and skills?
- What challenges do policymakers face when balancing support for family choices and equal work opportunities?
- Do you think affordable, high-quality child care would reduce the pay gap in your country? Why or why not?
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